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= = = War tunnels = = =
Given that Gibraltar was a small town with only a few defences protecting it , the solution was to build a massive series of tunnels and chambers inside the natural protection of the Rock of Gibraltar . This " town " inside the Rock contained its own power station , water supply , and hospital . Some soldiers posted here would not see the light of day for months on end . Two Canadian engineer companies , the only soldiers with diamond @-@ tipped drills and 5 British engineer companies , added some 30 miles ( 48 km ) of such tunnels , a feat thought impossible at the time . That was enough to hold all 30 @,@ 000 troops on the rock . Today , the rock has more underground tunnels than roads .
= = Death of Władysław <unk> : 1943 = =
On 4 July 1943 , a Liberator bomber from RAF Transport Command took off from Gibraltar for England . On board was General Władysław <unk> , Prime Minister of Poland 's London @-@ based government in exile and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of its armed forces , returning from visiting Polish troops in the Middle East .
The aircraft climbed normally from the runway , levelled off to gather speed but then suddenly lost height and crashed into the harbour . The 62 @-@ year @-@ old general died , along with 15 others . The sole survivor was the Czech @-@ born pilot , Eduard <unk> , who was rescued by an RAF launch . The bodies of five passengers and crew , including <unk> 's daughter , were never found .
The coffins of General <unk> and his Chief @-@ of @-@ Staff , General <unk> , were draped in the Polish National Flag and lay in state in the Cathedral of St. Mary the <unk> . After a <unk> Mass , the bodies were carried in procession to the <unk> Dockyard with full Military Honours to be shipped to London in anticipation that General <unk> 's remains would one day be returned to a liberated Poland . The route to the dockyard was lined by British troops and the coffins carried and escorted by Polish <unk> .
= = = Investigation = = =
In 1943 a British Court of Inquiry investigated the crash of <unk> 's Liberator II <unk> , but was unable to determine the probable cause , finding only that it was an accident and the " aircraft became uncontrollable for reasons which cannot be established " . A popular theory was insufficient technical maintenance leading to <unk> aircraft controls . Despite this finding , the political context of the event , coupled with a variety of curious circumstances , immediately gave rise to speculation that <unk> 's death had been no accident , and may in fact have been the direct result of a Soviet , British or even Polish conspiracy .
= = Aftermath = =
The surrender of Italy in September 1943 lifted any possible objections to the return of the <unk> to the Rock . As a result , a <unk> Board was established in November , and at a meeting of the Board on 8 February 1944 repatriation priorities were finally agreed . On 6 April 1944 the first group of 1 @,@ 367 <unk> arrived on the Rock directly from the United Kingdom and on 28 May , the first repatriation party left Madeira , and by the end of 1944 only 520 non @-@ priority <unk> remained on the island .
In London , home @-@ <unk> were making claims on the <unk> ’ wartime accommodation and 500 <unk> were re @-@ evacuated to Scotland and 3 @,@ 000 to camps in Northern Ireland . Although the Governor , Lt. General Sir Noel Mason @-@ MacFarlane , fought <unk> on behalf of the <unk> and did not accept the lack of accommodation as a sufficient reason for the delays . As late as 1947 there were still 2 @,@ 000 in Northern Irish camps . The last of the <unk> did not see the Rock again until 1951 .
= = See Also = =
Military history of the British Commonwealth in the Second World War
= <unk> =
<unk> ( Latin : Marcus <unk> <unk> Caesar Augustus ; 8 November , 30 AD – 27 January , 98 AD ) was Roman Emperor from 96 to 98 . <unk> became Emperor at the age of sixty @-@ five , after a lifetime of imperial service under <unk> and the rulers of the <unk> dynasty . Under <unk> , he was a member of the imperial entourage and played a vital part in exposing the <unk> conspiracy of 65 . Later , as a loyalist to the <unk> , he attained <unk> in 71 and 90 during the <unk> of <unk> and <unk> respectively .
On 18 September 96 , <unk> was assassinated in a palace conspiracy involving members of the <unk> Guard and several of his freedmen . On the same day , <unk> was declared emperor by the Roman Senate . This was the first time the Senate elected a Roman Emperor . As the new ruler of the Roman Empire , he vowed to restore liberties which had been curtailed during the <unk> government of <unk> .
<unk> 's brief reign was marred by financial difficulties and his inability to assert his authority over the Roman army . A revolt by the <unk> Guard in October 97 essentially forced him to adopt an heir . After some <unk> <unk> adopted Trajan , a young and popular general , as his successor . After barely fifteen months in office , <unk> died of natural causes on 27 January 98 . Upon his death he was succeeded and deified by Trajan .
Although much of his life remains obscure , <unk> was considered a wise and moderate emperor by ancient historians . <unk> 's greatest success was his ability to ensure a peaceful transition of power after his death , thus founding the <unk> – <unk> dynasty .
= = Early career = =
= = = Family = = =
Marcus <unk> <unk> was born in the village of <unk> , 50 kilometers north of Rome , to the family of Marcus <unk> <unk> , <unk> Consul in 40 , and <unk> <unk> . Ancient sources report the date as either 30 or 35 . He had at least one attested sister , named <unk> , who married Lucius <unk> <unk> <unk> , the brother of the future Emperor <unk> .
Like <unk> , the founder of the <unk> dynasty , <unk> was a member of the Italian nobility rather than one of the elite of Rome . Nevertheless , the <unk> were among the most esteemed and prominent political families of the late Republic and early Empire , attaining <unk> in each successive generation . The direct ancestors of <unk> on his father 's side , all named Marcus <unk> <unk> , were associated with imperial circles since the time of Emperor Augustus ( 27 BC – AD 14 ) .
His great @-@ grandfather was Consul in 36 BC ( in replacement , and abdicated ) , and Governor of Asia in the same year . His grandfather became Consul <unk> in July of either 21 or 22 , and was known as a personal friend of Emperor <unk> ( AD 14 – 37 ) , accompanying the emperor during his voluntary seclusion on Capri from 23 onwards , dying in 33 . <unk> 's father , finally , attained the <unk> in 40 under emperor <unk> ( 37 – 41 ) . The <unk> were connected with the Julio @-@ <unk> dynasty through the marriage of <unk> <unk> 's brother <unk> <unk> , and <unk> <unk> , the great @-@ granddaughter of <unk> .
= = = Imperial service = = =
Not much of <unk> 's early life or career is recorded , but it appears he did not pursue the usual administrative or military career . He was <unk> @-@ elect in the year 65 and , like his ancestors , moved in imperial circles as a skilled diplomat and strategist . As an advisor to Emperor <unk> , he successfully helped detect and expose the <unk> conspiracy of 65 . <unk> what his contribution to the investigation was is not known but his services must have been considerable , since they earned him rewards equal to those of <unk> 's guard prefect <unk> . He received <unk> honors — which was usually reserved for military victories — and the right to have his statues placed throughout the palace .
According to the contemporary poet Martial , <unk> also held <unk> 's literary abilities in high esteem , <unk> him as the " <unk> of our time " . Another prominent member of <unk> 's entourage was <unk> , an old and respected general who had celebrated military <unk> during the 40s . It appears <unk> befriended <unk> during his time as an imperial advisor , and may have asked him to watch over <unk> 's youngest son <unk> when <unk> departed for the Jewish war in 67 .
The suicide of <unk> on 9 June 68 brought the Julio @-@ <unk> dynasty to an end , leading to the chaotic Year of the Four <unk> , which saw the successive rise and fall of the emperors <unk> , <unk> and <unk> , until the accession of <unk> on 21 December 69 . <unk> nothing is known of <unk> 's whereabouts during 69 , but despite the fact that <unk> was his brother @-@ in @-@ law , he appears to have been one of the earliest and strongest supporters of the <unk> .
For services unknown , he was rewarded with a <unk> early in <unk> 's reign in 71 . This was a remarkable honour , not only because he held this office early under the new regime , but also because it was an ordinary <unk> ( instead of a less prestigious <unk> <unk> ) , making him one of the few non @-@ <unk> to be honoured in this way under <unk> . After 71 <unk> again disappears from historical record , presumably continuing his career as an inconspicuous advisor under <unk> ( 69 – 79 ) and his sons Titus ( 79 – 81 ) and <unk> ( 81 – 96 ) .
He re @-@ emerges during the revolt of <unk> in 89 . On 1 January , 89 , the governor of <unk> Superior , Lucius Antonius <unk> , and his two <unk> at <unk> , <unk> XIV <unk> and <unk> <unk> <unk> , <unk> against the Roman Empire with the aid of a tribe of the <unk> . The governor of <unk> <unk> , <unk> <unk> , moved to the region at once , assisted by the <unk> of <unk> , Titus <unk> <unk> . Within twenty @-@ four days the rebellion was crushed , and its leaders at <unk> <unk> punished . The <unk> <unk> were sent to the front of <unk> , while those who had assisted in their defeat were duly rewarded .
<unk> opened the year following the revolt by sharing the <unk> with <unk> . Again , the honour suggested <unk> had played a part in uncovering the conspiracy , perhaps in a fashion similar to what he did during the <unk> conspiracy under <unk> . Alternatively , <unk> may have selected <unk> as his colleague to emphasise the stability and status @-@ <unk> of the regime . The revolt had been suppressed , and the Empire could return to order .
= = Emperor = =
= = = <unk> = = =
On 18 September , 96 , <unk> was assassinated in a palace conspiracy organised by court officials . The <unk> <unk> , the <unk> Calendar , records that the same day the Senate proclaimed Marcus <unk> <unk> emperor . Despite his political experience , this was a remarkable choice . <unk> was old and <unk> , and had spent much of his career out of the public light , prompting both ancient and modern authors to speculate on his involvement in <unk> 's assassination .
According to <unk> <unk> , the conspirators approached <unk> as a potential successor prior to the assassination , which indicates that he was at least aware of the plot . <unk> by contrast does not mention <unk> , but he may have omitted his role out of <unk> . Considering the works of <unk> were published under <unk> 's direct descendants Trajan and <unk> , it would have been less than sensitive of him to suggest the dynasty owed its accession to murder . On the other hand , <unk> lacked widespread support in the Empire , and as a known <unk> loyalist his track record would not have recommended him to the conspirators . The precise facts have been obscured by history , but modern historians believe <unk> was proclaimed Emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , within hours after the news of the assassination broke .
Although he appeared to be an unlikely candidate on account of his age and weak health , <unk> was considered a safe choice precisely because he was old and <unk> . Furthermore , he had close connections with the <unk> dynasty and commanded the respect of a substantial part of the Senate . <unk> had seen the anarchy which had resulted from the death of <unk> ; he knew that to <unk> even for a few hours could lead to violent civil conflict . Rather than decline the invitation and risk <unk> , he accepted . The decision may have been hasty so as to avoid civil war , but neither the Senate nor <unk> appears to have been involved in the conspiracy against <unk> .
Following the accession of <unk> as emperor , the Senate passed <unk> <unk> on <unk> : his coins and statues were melted , his arches were torn down and his name was erased from all public records . In many instances , existing portraits of <unk> , such as those found on the <unk> <unk> , were simply <unk> to fit the likeness of <unk> . This allowed quick production of new images and recycling of previous material . In addition , the vast palace which <unk> had erected on the <unk> Hill , known as the <unk> Palace , was renamed the " House of the People " , and <unk> himself took up residence in <unk> 's former villa in the Gardens of <unk> .
= = = Administration = = =
The change of government was welcome particularly to the <unk> , who had been harshly persecuted during <unk> 's reign . As an immediate gesture of goodwill towards his supporters , <unk> publicly <unk> that no <unk> would be put to death as long as he remained in office . He called an end to trials based on treason , released those who had been imprisoned under these charges , and granted amnesty to many who had been exiled .
All properties which had been confiscated by <unk> were returned to their respective families . <unk> also sought to involve the Senate in his government , but this was not entirely successful . He continued to rely largely on friends and advisors that were known and trusted , and by maintaining friendly relations with the pro @-@ <unk> faction of the Senate , he incurred hostility which may have been the cause for at least one conspiracy against his life .
Having been proclaimed emperor solely on the initiative of the Senate , <unk> had to introduce a number of measures to gain support among the Roman populace . As was custom by this time , a change of emperor was expected to bring with it a generous payment of gifts and money to the people and the army . Accordingly , a <unk> of 75 <unk> per head was bestowed upon the citizens , while the soldiers of the <unk> Guard received a <unk> which may have amounted to as much as 5000 <unk> per person . This was followed by a string of economic reforms intended to alleviate the burden of taxation from the most <unk> Romans .
To the poorest , <unk> granted <unk> of land worth up to 60 million <unk> . He <unk> parents and their children from a 5 % inheritance tax , and he made loans to Italian landowners on the condition that they pay interest of 5 % to their municipality to support the children of <unk> families ; <unk> schemes which were later expanded by Trajan , <unk> Pius , and Marcus Aurelius . Furthermore , numerous taxes were <unk> and privileges granted to Roman provinces . <unk> , he probably abolished the <unk> <unk> , the additional tax which all Jews throughout the Empire had to pay : some of his coins bear the legend <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> ( abolition of malicious prosecution regarding the Jewish tax ) .
Before long , <unk> 's expenses strained the economy of Rome and , although perhaps not ruinous to the extent once suggested by <unk> , necessitated the formation of a special commission of economy to drastically reduce <unk> . The most superfluous religious sacrifices , games and horse races were abolished , while new income was generated from <unk> 's former possessions , including the <unk> of ships , estates , and even furniture . Large amounts of money were obtained from <unk> 's silver and gold statues , and <unk> forbade that similar images be made in his honor .
Because he reigned only briefly , <unk> 's public works were few , instead completing projects which had been initiated under <unk> rule . This included extensive repairs to the Roman road system and the expansion of the <unk> . The latter program was headed by the former consul <unk> Julius <unk> , who helped to put an end to abuses and later published a significant work on Rome 's water supply , De <unk> <unk> <unk> . The only major landmarks constructed under <unk> were a <unk> , known as the <unk> <unk> , and a small Imperial <unk> begun by <unk> , which linked the <unk> of Augustus to the Temple of Peace . Little remains , partly because the Via <unk> <unk> <unk> cuts across it .
= = = Crisis of succession = = =
Despite <unk> 's measures to remain popular with the Senate and the Roman people , support for <unk> remained strong in the army , which had called for his <unk> immediately after the assassination . In an attempt to appease the soldiers of the <unk> Guard , <unk> had dismissed their prefect Titus <unk> <unk> — one of the chief conspirators against <unk> — and replaced him with a former commander , <unk> <unk> .
Likewise , the generous <unk> bestowed upon the soldiers following his accession was expected to swiftly silence any protests against the violent regime change . The <unk> considered these measures insufficient , however , and demanded the execution of <unk> 's assassins , which <unk> refused . Continued dissatisfaction with this state of affairs would ultimately lead to the <unk> crisis of <unk> 's reign .
While the swift transfer of power following <unk> 's death had prevented a civil war from <unk> , <unk> 's position as an emperor soon proved too vulnerable , and his benign nature turned into a reluctance to assert his authority . Upon his accession , he had ordered a halt to treason trials , but at the same time allowed the prosecution of <unk> by the Senate to continue . This measure led to chaos , as everyone acted in his own interests while trying to settle scores with personal enemies , leading the consul <unk> to famously remark that <unk> 's <unk> was ultimately <unk> to <unk> 's anarchy . Early in 97 , a conspiracy led by the senator <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> <unk> failed , but once again <unk> refused to put the conspirators to death , much to the disapproval of the Senate .
The situation was further aggravated by the absence of a clear successor , made more pressing because of <unk> 's old age and sickness . He had no natural children of his own and only distant relatives , who were unsuited for political office . A successor would have to be chosen from among the governors or generals in the Empire and it appears that , by 97 , <unk> was considering to adopt Marcus Cornelius <unk> <unk> <unk> , the powerful governor of Syria . This was covertly opposed by those who supported the more popular military commander Marcus <unk> <unk> , commonly known as Trajan , a general of the armies at the German frontier .
In October 97 these tensions came to a head when the <unk> Guard , led by <unk> <unk> , laid siege to the Imperial Palace and took <unk> hostage . He was forced to submit to their demands , agreeing to hand over those responsible for <unk> 's death and even giving a speech <unk> the rebellious <unk> . Titus <unk> <unk> and <unk> , <unk> 's former <unk> , were sought out and killed . <unk> was unharmed in this assault , but his authority was damaged beyond repair .
He realized that his position was no longer <unk> without the support of an heir who had the approval of both the army and the people . Shortly thereafter , he announced the adoption of Trajan as his successor , and with this decision all but abdicated . Trajan was formally bestowed with the title of Caesar and shared the <unk> with <unk> in 98 :
Contrary to the view here popularized by <unk> <unk> , however , <unk> had in fact little choice with regard to his successor . Faced with a major crisis , he desperately needed the support of a man who could restore his damaged reputation . The only candidate with sufficient military experience , <unk> ancestry , and connections was Trajan . Likewise , Edward <unk> 's assertion that <unk> <unk> established a tradition of succession through adoption among the Five Good <unk> has found little support among modern historians .
= = Death and legacy = =
On 1 January , 98 , at the start of his fourth <unk> , <unk> suffered a stroke during a private audience . Shortly thereafter he was struck by a fever and died at his villa in the Gardens of <unk> , on 28 January . He was deified by the Senate , and his ashes were laid to rest in the <unk> of Augustus .
<unk> was succeeded without incident by his adopted son Trajan , who was greeted by the Roman populace with much enthusiasm . According to Pliny the Younger , Trajan dedicated a temple in honour of <unk> , yet no trace of it has ever been found ; nor was a commemorative series of coins for the <unk> <unk> issued until ten years after his death . According to <unk> <unk> , however , the Guard prefect responsible for the mutiny against <unk> , <unk> <unk> , was ' dismissed ' upon Trajan 's accession .
Due to the lack of written sources on this period , much of <unk> 's life has remained obscure . The most substantial surviving account of the reign of <unk> was written by the 3rd @-@ century historian <unk> <unk> . His Roman History , which spans nearly a millennium , from the arrival of <unk> in Italy until the year <unk> , was composed more than one hundred years after <unk> had died . Further details are added by an abridged biography from the <unk> de <unk> , a work alleged to have been authored by the 4th @-@ century historian Aurelius Victor .
A more comprehensive text , presumed to describe the life of <unk> in closer detail , is the <unk> , by the contemporary historian <unk> . The <unk> is an account of the history of Rome covering three decades from the suicide of emperor <unk> in 69 until the death of <unk> in 96 . Unfortunately , a substantial part of the work has been lost , with only the first five books covering the Year of the Four <unk> remaining . In the introduction to his biography of <unk> Julius <unk> however , <unk> speaks highly of <unk> , describing his reign as " the dawn of a most happy age , [ when ] <unk> Caesar blended things once <unk> , sovereignty and freedom " .
The surviving histories speak equally positively of <unk> 's brief reign , although none offer a substantial commentary on his policies . Both <unk> <unk> and Aurelius Victor emphasize his wisdom and <unk> , with <unk> commending his decision to adopt Trajan as his heir . These views were later popularized by the 18th @-@ century historian Edward <unk> in his History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire . <unk> considered <unk> the first of the Five Good <unk> , five successive rulers under whom the Roman Empire " was governed by absolute power , under the guidance of wisdom and virtue " from 96 until 180 . Nevertheless , even <unk> notes that , compared to his successors , <unk> may have lacked the necessary qualifications for a successful reign :
Modern history has expanded upon this sentiment , characterizing <unk> as a well @-@ <unk> but weak and <unk> ruler . The Roman Senate enjoyed renewed liberties under his rule , but <unk> 's <unk> of the state finances and lack of authority over the army ultimately brought Rome near the edge of a significant crisis . The mutiny led by <unk> <unk> was never intended as a coup , but a calculated attempt to put pressure on the emperor . The adoption of Trajan expanded his power base with a respected , reliable general as his successor . <unk> concludes that <unk> 's real talents were in fact ill @-@ suited to the <unk> :
His place in Roman history is therefore summarized as a necessary , if tumultuous stop @-@ gap before the <unk> @-@ <unk> dynasties . It is a fact of irony that even the only major public work completed during his reign , the <unk> of <unk> , ultimately became known as the <unk> <unk> , or transitional forum .
Two modern statues which commemorate <unk> can be found in towns associated with him . There is an <unk> statue in Gloucester , England , a town which was founded in his honour . It is at the entrance to <unk> Street . There is also a statue at his alleged birthplace , <unk> in Italy , at <unk> <unk> street .
= = <unk> – <unk> family tree = =
= = In popular culture = =
<unk> was played by Norman <unk> in the 1951 film <unk> <unk> .
He was also played by <unk> Gemma in the 1964 film <unk> of the <unk> .
= = = Secondary material = = =
<unk> web links , International links ' , International links from <unk> web site